McCook, Stuart. “The World Was My Garden: Tropical Botany and Cosmopolitanism in American Science, 1898-1935.” 499-507.

McCook, a history professor who focuses on the environmental history of tropical crops and commodities, examines the process of how American botanical and agricultural research became cosmopolitan from the 19th to 20th century. McCook argues that the expansion of tropical botany and agricultural research roots from the U.S. government’s desire to controlling the newly colonized lands. While the governmental funding of research is not always abundant, the government’s efforts have indirectly created a global network for researchers. Many successful researchers mentioned by McCook build up their own companies or research organizations and promote their research focus. This work is useful for my study of the development of the U.S. tropical botany and agricultural research because it provides me with some clear background information and important organizations related to the research development. 

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” 163-174. 

Associate Professor Navarro-Rivera examines how education is used by the United States’ government as a way to assimilate/americanize Puerto Ricans, whose lands are colonized by the U.S. He argues that teacher training programs and schools that favor American curriculum and English-learning are tactics that the U.S. government used to conquer Puerto Ricans’ cultural identities for better governance. He specifically mentions the Carlisle Indian Industrial School so as to present a better picture of how Puerto Ricans children are being treated and educated in U.S. vocational schools. This work is useful for my study of the U.S. expansionist policy because it contains both photos and quotes from Puerto Rican children who were sent to a U.S. vocational school. This would provide me with insights into the struggles and development of children under U.S. expansionism. 

The primary source “The World Was My Garden” by McCook was about the impact that US imperialism had on botany research and the market for plants. THe author argues that because of American expansion is that American Botany and agricultural research became cosmopolitan. His claims are backed by reliable sources and gives a great example of what American imperialism was and how it impacted us in the future.

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico by Alfred W McCoy and and Francisco A Scarano was about the approach that the United States took towards providing Puerto Ricans with education. The author argued that The United States’ representatives felt the need to educate all of this uncivilized popula and turn them into “colored scholars.” The authors takes an unbiased stand and use reliable sources that illustrated the impact that the United States had on the Puerto Rican people.

McCook, Stuart. “The World Was My Garden: Tropical Botany and Cosmopolitanism in American Science, 1898-1935.” 499-507. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Historian Stuart McCook examines American tropical botany during the period between 1898 and 1935. He argues that during this time period, American botany became increasingly focused on the tropics in a shift from a previous focus on the continental US. This reflects a broader shift from a nationalist focus to a cosmopolitan one in other areas of American life and society, a shift brought about by the rise of the American empire. McCook reviews the of American research stations in the tropics and the influence of the federal government in promoting tropical botany to make his argument.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” 163-174. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Historian Pablo Navarro-Rivera examines the education system set up by the United States in Puerto Rico during the early period of its rule of the island. Navarro-Rivera argues that the US pursued a policy of assimilation and Americanization, and constructed and used the Puerto Rican education system as a means to this end. As evidence, Navarro-Rivera examines the instances of Puerto Rican students being sent to the Carlisle Indian industrial School, using the accounts and letters of these students as sources.

McCook, Stuart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden explores how the U.S. began to research tropical plants after obtaining large amounts of foreign land. It also dives into how this research was then used to greatly expand the U.S.’ agricultural knowledge and systems. Which due to its growth requires the creation of more jobs, providing many people with work. This article is a demonstration of how the U.S. used its newly acquired through imperialism to further expand not only its mass but also its intelligence. Finding new ways to grow and fix problems with its agricultural system while also remembering sweet capitalism.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico dives into the darker side of the U.S.’ attempt to force cultural assimilation upon children. In this article you see how Puerto Rican children in schools in both America and Puerto Rico are re-branded to be the “ideal” child. This white-washing provided these kids with new “Christian” names, haircuts, and even clothing . This exploration of the U.S.’ attempt to destroy another persons culture and heritage in order to “idealize” and conquer them is another example of its imperialistic nature.

McCook, Stewart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden allows us insight into the growth and expansion of the US agriculture research infrastructure and one of the largest collections of localized plants. It highlights the development of agriculture and the study of herbivory on these colonized lands to then bring this tropical botany back to the U.S. This then did allow for growth in the job industry, bringing the solution to previous agricultural issues and the installation of USDA led regulations in disease legislation. Stuart McCook is a professor with a focus on the environmental history of tropical plants, allowing for a very insightful interpretation of this information. He allows a mature academic read of the then-new revolutionizing academia of plant sciences, while also opening up the conversation of imperialism for capital.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

Associate Professor Pablo Navarro Rivera provides an elaboration of the hegemonies and re-structurization of Puerto Rican culture in the exchange back and forth as colony of Spain and territory of the U.S. With Puerto Rico being succumbed by the colonization of Spain, once the undertaking of the region came under the handle of the U.S, education began to be seen as the “new way” of conquering. This colonizing attitude towards education became the reasoning behind many Puerto Ricans being sent off to American educational facilities. In a sense of conformist logic, the U.S felt that if Puerto Ricans were able to more closely identify with Americans that it would be more reasonable for this expansion into a territory. This sponsored the idea of allowing a select few the opportunity to Study in America with a grant scholarship, to learn how to act “civilized,” in an almost military fashion. This ideology remains very nationalistic as in regards to the U.S government, people of Puerto Rico, among others, consist of those who are “uncivilized.” In these actions of “re-education”, the U.S formed governance over Puerto Rico in land, culture, and identity.

McCook, Stewart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden provides an overview of the rise of tropical botany in the United States, a result of American imperialism. The source also provides insight into the effects of tropical botany, such as bringing tropical plants back to the U.S., the creation of agricultural and botanical centers abroad, and the formation of new careers for Americans. One of the most valuable parts of this source is that it plays into the wider scope of imperialism at this time. It is only fitting that Americans take tropical plants back to America, all while promoting “democratic farming.”  Tropical botany mirrors the trends American imperialism inspire. For example, the documentation of plants and plant hunting mirrors the interest and fetishization of indigenous peoples. The promotion of democratic farming mirrors the cultural imperialism that took place during this time- the uprooting of traditional farming practices and cultural values.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico gives insight into how far America was willing to go for an attempt at cultural assimilation. The source primarily follows the education given to Puerto Ricans, both in Puerto Rico or in schools in America, such as The Carlisle Indian Industrial School. This source uses CIIS as an example to document the horridness of the process of Americanization- students were forced to become “civilized,” and were required to bath, receive a haircut, new clothes, and a christian name. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico shows how homogenization is a direct byproduct of imperialism- the U.S. was intent upon creating a culture that spread globally.

“Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State.” The SHAFR Guide Online, n.d., 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim050140269.

Stuart McCook, a professor of history at the University of Guelph, with a focus on environmental history and tropical plants, wrote an excerpt in “Colonial Crucible,” titled “The World was my Garden.” In this article, McCook discusses the rise of domestic agricultural research, and how it spurred a demand for American experts in the study of tropical plants. He spends a great deal of time unpacking the reasons for this expansion, which he notes is mainly imperialistic, and how this expansion led to a new generation of American experts in tropical botany. This research is useful for analyzing a different perspective of American imperialism in Latin America, specifically because its focus is unique from other accounts of the negative effects of American expansionism.

“Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State.” The SHAFR Guide Online, n.d., 163-174. https://doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim050140269.

Pablo Navarro-Rivera is an Associate Professor at Lesley University. His section in “Colonial Crucible” was titled “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” His entry began by introducing the value of education in American society and the role in played in American expansionism. He focuses on how Puerto Rico has been affected. His themes center around the direct governance that the United States adopted, as opposed to the indirect governance of the British and Spanish, and how this deep involvement within the country influenced it. He spends a great deal of time talking about the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, or CIIS, and Puerto Rican attendance to the school in Pennsylvania. Navarro-Rivera’s research is useful in examining an aspect of the CIIS that does not receive as much attention as the more notable aspects of the school, such as its treatment of Native Americans.

Pablo Navarro-Rivera, “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico,” in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, accessed February 10, 2020, https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf.

Author Pablo Navarro-Rivera writes about the educational policies in the United States territory of Puerto Rico and how those policies were designed to benefit the imperialist desires of the US. In order to make this argument he uses evidence such as the Foraker Act (passed in 1900) to demonstrate the United States’ desire to assimilate and “civilize” the people of their new territory. This article is useful because it helps build the idea of the lack of respect that the United States held towards indigenous culture and how willing the white man was to crush different cultures in order to benefit himself. This is an idea that is applicable to all United States territories, as well as those territories belong to the other European world powers during the age of imperialism.

Stuart McCook, “‘The World Was My Garden’ Tropical Botany and Cosmopolitanism in American Science, 1898-1935,” in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, accessed February 10, 2020, https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf.

History Professor Stuart McCook examines the rise of United States study of tropical plants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He argues that this sudden increase in interest in tropical botany is based on the fact that the United States suddenly acquired a lot of overseas territory around this time.  McCook discusses the effects of this new interest in tropical botany on the sudden availability of economic plants from the tropics, as well as the transplanting of those plants to the United States for agricultural purposes. This article is useful in the study of US and Latin American relations because it highlights a way in which the US tried to take advantage of the territories they gained possession of, and allows for a further in depth exploration of the exploitation and destruction of tropical natural resources than might be found in other texts.

The primary source that I chose to analyze was Colored Officers or No Colored Soldiers by Presley Holiday. Sargent Presley Holliday’s document was a response to Roosevelt’s attack on African American soldiers. The document is critical of Colonel Roosevelt’s criticism of black troops. Presley Holleyday claims he was there during the battle and that colored soldiers were fighting just as hard as white soldiers. Holliday states in his document that after Roosevelt threatened to shoot anyone who backed from the from, they all responded “We will stay with you, Colonel”(77) He then goes on to call the claims that Roosevelt made “uncalled for and uncharitable.” (77) He ends the document by explaining that it is not just to have white officers for black soldiers and once again criticized Roosevelt for his false accusations. This document shed light on the reality or at least gave a different perspective on the role that African American soldiers played. The altering of history is seen again and again and we can see that with this document. We see here that once again, colored soldiers were not only not getting the credit they deserve but were also made to be worse than they actually were.