For my research paper, I want to explore the systems instilled and upheld in which come together to form what we perceive as modern-day American society, regarding the Critical Race Theory. To narrow this down, of course, this’ll view the development of these structures within colonial Latin America, specifically digging into how the economy can be seen as a contributor to the development of modern -race as well as racial discrepancies. The (CRT) Critical Race Theory examines the inner workings of societies and cultures to identify what exactly gives yields to imbalances of power, law and racial equality. I want to use this to map out the development of white supremacy as not just a power structure born of malice, but also as a tool to limit and place havoc upon the peoples native to colonial lands.

For my research project, I want to cover something related to Latin American culture, possibly solely Nicaraguan culture. Culture has always been something that has fascinated me, and I think one really gets to know another by experiencing and learning about their culture. I think it is important to learn Latin American history because one can then see how a culture is born. Time shapes a culture into what we know it as today, and it is important to learn how those changes came about. For example, in American Empire at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, there was a story concerning missionary work and how that leads to cultural imperialism. That is another possible topic- cultural homogenization in today’s world due to globalization and Americanization.

I would like to investigate the political relationship between Cuba and the United States. This topic is useful for understanding Latin American history because it is a significant example of U.S. intervention in Latin America. Just like other Latin American countries like Venezuela and Mexico, U.S.-Cuban relations have been intertwined for a long time. From the U.S. “helping” Cuba to gain its independence from Spain to the U.S.economic embargo against Cuba, these were all important moments that have affected how other Latin American countries view U.S. interventionism. While the U.S. has intervened in most Latin American countries’ politics historically, Cuba has remained its resistance against U.S. intervention and democracy. Being the only communist country in Latin America has further made Cuba a powerful ideological symbol for many Latin Americans. Cuba’s distinct revolutionary leaders like Castro and Guevara have also contributed to a big part of Latinx history, and have inspired many activists in Latin America as well as the world. Thus, understanding the U.S.-Cuban political relationship would allow us to gain an insight into the historical development of U.S.-Latin American relations.

McCook, Stuart. “The World Was My Garden: Tropical Botany and Cosmopolitanism in American Science, 1898-1935.” 499-507.

McCook, a history professor who focuses on the environmental history of tropical crops and commodities, examines the process of how American botanical and agricultural research became cosmopolitan from the 19th to 20th century. McCook argues that the expansion of tropical botany and agricultural research roots from the U.S. government’s desire to controlling the newly colonized lands. While the governmental funding of research is not always abundant, the government’s efforts have indirectly created a global network for researchers. Many successful researchers mentioned by McCook build up their own companies or research organizations and promote their research focus. This work is useful for my study of the development of the U.S. tropical botany and agricultural research because it provides me with some clear background information and important organizations related to the research development. 

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” 163-174. 

Associate Professor Navarro-Rivera examines how education is used by the United States’ government as a way to assimilate/americanize Puerto Ricans, whose lands are colonized by the U.S. He argues that teacher training programs and schools that favor American curriculum and English-learning are tactics that the U.S. government used to conquer Puerto Ricans’ cultural identities for better governance. He specifically mentions the Carlisle Indian Industrial School so as to present a better picture of how Puerto Ricans children are being treated and educated in U.S. vocational schools. This work is useful for my study of the U.S. expansionist policy because it contains both photos and quotes from Puerto Rican children who were sent to a U.S. vocational school. This would provide me with insights into the struggles and development of children under U.S. expansionism. 

The primary source “The World Was My Garden” by McCook was about the impact that US imperialism had on botany research and the market for plants. THe author argues that because of American expansion is that American Botany and agricultural research became cosmopolitan. His claims are backed by reliable sources and gives a great example of what American imperialism was and how it impacted us in the future.

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico by Alfred W McCoy and and Francisco A Scarano was about the approach that the United States took towards providing Puerto Ricans with education. The author argued that The United States’ representatives felt the need to educate all of this uncivilized popula and turn them into “colored scholars.” The authors takes an unbiased stand and use reliable sources that illustrated the impact that the United States had on the Puerto Rican people.

McCook, Stuart. “The World Was My Garden: Tropical Botany and Cosmopolitanism in American Science, 1898-1935.” 499-507. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Historian Stuart McCook examines American tropical botany during the period between 1898 and 1935. He argues that during this time period, American botany became increasingly focused on the tropics in a shift from a previous focus on the continental US. This reflects a broader shift from a nationalist focus to a cosmopolitan one in other areas of American life and society, a shift brought about by the rise of the American empire. McCook reviews the of American research stations in the tropics and the influence of the federal government in promoting tropical botany to make his argument.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” 163-174. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Historian Pablo Navarro-Rivera examines the education system set up by the United States in Puerto Rico during the early period of its rule of the island. Navarro-Rivera argues that the US pursued a policy of assimilation and Americanization, and constructed and used the Puerto Rican education system as a means to this end. As evidence, Navarro-Rivera examines the instances of Puerto Rican students being sent to the Carlisle Indian industrial School, using the accounts and letters of these students as sources.

McCook, Stuart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden explores how the U.S. began to research tropical plants after obtaining large amounts of foreign land. It also dives into how this research was then used to greatly expand the U.S.’ agricultural knowledge and systems. Which due to its growth requires the creation of more jobs, providing many people with work. This article is a demonstration of how the U.S. used its newly acquired through imperialism to further expand not only its mass but also its intelligence. Finding new ways to grow and fix problems with its agricultural system while also remembering sweet capitalism.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico dives into the darker side of the U.S.’ attempt to force cultural assimilation upon children. In this article you see how Puerto Rican children in schools in both America and Puerto Rico are re-branded to be the “ideal” child. This white-washing provided these kids with new “Christian” names, haircuts, and even clothing . This exploration of the U.S.’ attempt to destroy another persons culture and heritage in order to “idealize” and conquer them is another example of its imperialistic nature.

McCook, Stewart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden allows us insight into the growth and expansion of the US agriculture research infrastructure and one of the largest collections of localized plants. It highlights the development of agriculture and the study of herbivory on these colonized lands to then bring this tropical botany back to the U.S. This then did allow for growth in the job industry, bringing the solution to previous agricultural issues and the installation of USDA led regulations in disease legislation. Stuart McCook is a professor with a focus on the environmental history of tropical plants, allowing for a very insightful interpretation of this information. He allows a mature academic read of the then-new revolutionizing academia of plant sciences, while also opening up the conversation of imperialism for capital.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

Associate Professor Pablo Navarro Rivera provides an elaboration of the hegemonies and re-structurization of Puerto Rican culture in the exchange back and forth as colony of Spain and territory of the U.S. With Puerto Rico being succumbed by the colonization of Spain, once the undertaking of the region came under the handle of the U.S, education began to be seen as the “new way” of conquering. This colonizing attitude towards education became the reasoning behind many Puerto Ricans being sent off to American educational facilities. In a sense of conformist logic, the U.S felt that if Puerto Ricans were able to more closely identify with Americans that it would be more reasonable for this expansion into a territory. This sponsored the idea of allowing a select few the opportunity to Study in America with a grant scholarship, to learn how to act “civilized,” in an almost military fashion. This ideology remains very nationalistic as in regards to the U.S government, people of Puerto Rico, among others, consist of those who are “uncivilized.” In these actions of “re-education”, the U.S formed governance over Puerto Rico in land, culture, and identity.

McCook, Stewart. The World Was My Garden. 1935. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/McCook-The-World-Was-My-Garden-Tropical-Botany-and-Cosmopolitanism-in-American-Science-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-499-507.pdf

The World Was My Garden provides an overview of the rise of tropical botany in the United States, a result of American imperialism. The source also provides insight into the effects of tropical botany, such as bringing tropical plants back to the U.S., the creation of agricultural and botanical centers abroad, and the formation of new careers for Americans. One of the most valuable parts of this source is that it plays into the wider scope of imperialism at this time. It is only fitting that Americans take tropical plants back to America, all while promoting “democratic farming.”  Tropical botany mirrors the trends American imperialism inspire. For example, the documentation of plants and plant hunting mirrors the interest and fetishization of indigenous peoples. The promotion of democratic farming mirrors the cultural imperialism that took place during this time- the uprooting of traditional farming practices and cultural values.

Navarro-Rivera, Pablo. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico. https://laus2020.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/260/2020/01/Navarro-Rivera-The-Imperial-Enterprise-and-Educational-Politices-in-Coloinal-PR-from-The-Colonial-Crucible-163-174.pdf

The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico gives insight into how far America was willing to go for an attempt at cultural assimilation. The source primarily follows the education given to Puerto Ricans, both in Puerto Rico or in schools in America, such as The Carlisle Indian Industrial School. This source uses CIIS as an example to document the horridness of the process of Americanization- students were forced to become “civilized,” and were required to bath, receive a haircut, new clothes, and a christian name. The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico shows how homogenization is a direct byproduct of imperialism- the U.S. was intent upon creating a culture that spread globally.

“Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State.” The SHAFR Guide Online, n.d., 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim050140269.

Stuart McCook, a professor of history at the University of Guelph, with a focus on environmental history and tropical plants, wrote an excerpt in “Colonial Crucible,” titled “The World was my Garden.” In this article, McCook discusses the rise of domestic agricultural research, and how it spurred a demand for American experts in the study of tropical plants. He spends a great deal of time unpacking the reasons for this expansion, which he notes is mainly imperialistic, and how this expansion led to a new generation of American experts in tropical botany. This research is useful for analyzing a different perspective of American imperialism in Latin America, specifically because its focus is unique from other accounts of the negative effects of American expansionism.

“Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State.” The SHAFR Guide Online, n.d., 163-174. https://doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim050140269.

Pablo Navarro-Rivera is an Associate Professor at Lesley University. His section in “Colonial Crucible” was titled “The Imperial Enterprise and Educational Policies in Colonial Puerto Rico.” His entry began by introducing the value of education in American society and the role in played in American expansionism. He focuses on how Puerto Rico has been affected. His themes center around the direct governance that the United States adopted, as opposed to the indirect governance of the British and Spanish, and how this deep involvement within the country influenced it. He spends a great deal of time talking about the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, or CIIS, and Puerto Rican attendance to the school in Pennsylvania. Navarro-Rivera’s research is useful in examining an aspect of the CIIS that does not receive as much attention as the more notable aspects of the school, such as its treatment of Native Americans.